A web browser displays information identified by a URL. And the first step is to use that URL to connect to and download information from a server somewhere on the internet.

The Mandalorian 1 Temporada Torrent 2019 Dual Audio Instant

Browsing the internet starts with a URL,“URL” stands for “uniform resource locator”, meaning that it is a portable (uniform) way to identify web pages (resources) and also that it describes how to access those files (locator). a short string that identifies a particular web page that the browser should visit.

httpScheme://example.orgHostname/index.htmlPath

A URL has three parts (see Figure 1): the scheme explains how to get the information; the host name explains where to get it; and the path explains what information to get. There are also optional parts to the URL, like ports, queries, and fragments, which we’ll see later.

From a URL, the browser can start the process of downloading the web page. The browser first asks the local operating system (OS) to put it in touch with the server described by the host name. The OS then talks to a Domain Name System (DNS) server which convertsYou can use a DNS lookup tool like nslookup.io or the dig command to do this conversion yourself. a host name like example.org into a destination IP address like 93.184.216.34.Today there are two versions of IP (Internet Protocol): IPv4 and IPv6. IPv6 addresses are a lot longer and are usually written in hexadecimal, but otherwise the differences don’t matter here. Then the OS decides which hardware is best for communicating with that destination IP address (say, wireless or wired) using what is called a routing table, and then uses device drivers to send signals over a wire or over the air.I’m skipping steps here. On wires you first have to wrap communications in ethernet frames, on wireless you have to do even more. I’m trying to be brief. Those signals are picked up and transmitted by a series of routersOr a switch, or an access point; there are a lot of possibilities, but eventually there is a router. which each choose the best direction to send your message so that it eventually gets to the destination.They may also record where the message came from so they can forward the reply back. When the message reaches the server, a connection is created. Anyway, the point of this is that the browser tells the OS, “Hey, put me in touch with example.org”, and it does.

On many systems, you can set up this kind of connection using the telnet program, like this:The “80” is the port, discussed below.

telnet example.org 80

nc -v example.org 80

You’ll get output that looks like this:

Trying 93.184.216.34...
Connected to example.org.
Escape character is '^]'.

This means that the OS converted the host name example.org into the IP address 93.184.216.34 and was able to connect to it.The line about escape characters is just instructions for using obscure telnet features. You can now talk to example.org.

The Mandalorian 1 Temporada Torrent 2019 Dual Audio Instant

Once it’s connected, the browser requests information from the server by giving its path, the path being the part of a URL that comes after the host name, like /index.html. The structure of the request is shown in Figure 2. Type this into telnet to try it.

GETMethod /index.htmlPath HTTP/1.0HTTP Version
HostHeader: example.orgValue

Here, the word GET means that the browser would like to receive information,It could say POST if it intended to send information, plus there are some other, more obscure, options. then comes the path, and finally there is the word HTTP/1.0 which tells the host that the browser speaks version 1.0 of HTTP. There are several versions of HTTP (0.9, 1.0, 1.1, 2.0, and 3.0). The HTTP 1.1 standard adds a variety of useful features, like keep-alive, but in the interest of simplicity our browser won’t use them. We’re also not implementing HTTP 2.0; it is much more complex than the 1.x series, and is intended for large and complex web applications, which our browser can’t run anyway.

After the first line, each line contains a header, which has a name (like Host) and a value (like example.org). Different headers mean different things; the Host header, for example, tells the server who you think it is.This is useful when the same IP address corresponds to multiple host names and hosts multiple websites (for example, example.com and example.org). The Host header tells the server which of multiple websites you want. These websites basically require the Host header to function properly. Hosting multiple domains on a single computer is very common. There are lots of other headers one could send, but let’s stick to just Host for now.

Finally, after the headers comes a single blank line; that tells the host that you are done with headers. So type a blank line into telnet (hit Enter twice after typing the two lines of the request) and you should get a response from example.org.

The Mandalorian 1 Temporada Torrent 2019 Dual Audio Instant

The server’s response starts with the line in Figure 3.

HTTP/1.0HTTP Version 200Response Code OKResponse Description

This tells you that the host confirms that it, too, speaks HTTP/1.0, and that it found your request to be “OK” (which has a numeric code of 200). You may be familiar with 404 Not Found; that’s another numeric code and response, as are 403 Forbidden or 500 Server Error. There are lots of these codes, and they have a pretty neat organization scheme:The status text like OK can actually be anything and is just there for humans, not for machines.

• the 100s are informational messages;
• the 200s mean you were successful;
• the 300s request follow-up action (usually a redirect);
• the 400s mean you sent a bad request;
• the 500s mean the server handled the request badly.

Note the genius of having two sets of error codes (400s and 500s) to tell you who is at fault, the server or the browser.More precisely, who the server thinks is at fault. You can find a full list of the different codes on Wikipedia, and new ones do get added here and there.

After the 200 OK line, the server sends its own headers. When I did this, I got these headers (but yours will differ):

Age: 545933
Cache-Control: max-age=604800
Content-Type: text/html; charset=UTF-8
Date: Mon, 25 Feb 2019 16:49:28 GMT
Etag: "1541025663+gzip+ident"
Expires: Mon, 04 Mar 2019 16:49:28 GMT
Last-Modified: Fri, 09 Aug 2013 23:54:35 GMT
Server: ECS (sec/96EC)
Vary: Accept-Encoding
X-Cache: HIT
Content-Length: 1270
Connection: close

There is a lot here, about the information you are requesting (Content-Type, Content-Length, and Last-Modified), about the server (Server, X-Cache), about how long the browser should cache this information (Cache-Control, Expires, Etag), and about all sorts of other stuff. Let’s move on for now.

After the headers there is a blank line followed by a bunch of HTML code. This is called the body of the server’s response, and your browser knows that it is HTML because of the Content-Type header, which says that it is text/html. It’s this HTML code that contains the content of the web page itself.

The HTTP request/response transaction is summarized in Figure 4. Let’s now switch gears from making manual connections to Python.

The Mandalorian 1 Temporada Torrent 2019 Dual Audio Instant

So far we’ve communicated with another computer using telnet. But it turns out that telnet is quite a simple program, and we can do the same programmatically. It’ll require extracting the host name and path from the URL, creating a socket, sending a request, and receiving a response.In Python, there’s a library called urllib.parse for parsing URLs, but I think implementing our own will be good for learning. Plus, it makes this book less Python-specific.

Let’s start with parsing the URL. I’m going to make parsing a URL return a URL object, and I’ll put the parsing code into the constructor:

class URL:
    def __init__(self, url):
        # ...

The __init__ method is Python’s peculiar syntax for class constructors, and the self parameter, which you must always make the first parameter of any method, is Python’s analog of this in C++ or Java.

Let’s start with the scheme, which is separated from the rest of the URL by ://. Our browser only supports http, so let’s check that, too:

class URL:
    def __init__(self, url):
        self.scheme, url = url.split("://", 1)
        assert self.scheme == "http"

Now we must separate the host from the path. The host comes before the first /, while the path is that slash and everything after it:

class URL:
    def __init__(self, url):
        # ...
        if "/" not in url:
            url = url + "/"
        self.host, url = url.split("/", 1)
        self.path = "/" + url

(When you see a code block with a # ..., like this one, that means you’re adding code to an existing method or block.) The split(s, n) method splits a string at the first n copies of s. Note that there’s some tricky logic here for handling the slash between the host name and the path. That (optional) slash is part of the path.

Now that the URL has the host and path fields, we can download the web page at that URL. We’ll do that in a new method, request:

class URL:
    def request(self):
        # ...

Note that you always need to write the self parameter for methods in Python. In the future, I won’t always make such a big deal out of defining a method—if you see a code block with code in a method or function that doesn’t exist yet, that means we’re defining it.

The first step to downloading a web page is connecting to the host. The operating system provides a feature called “sockets” for this. When you want to talk to other computers (either to tell them something, or to wait for them to tell you something), you create a socket, and then that socket can be used to send information back and forth. Sockets come in a few different kinds, because there are multiple ways to talk to other computers:

• A socket has an address family, which tells you how to find the other computer. Address families have names that begin with AF. We want AF_INET, but for example AF_BLUETOOTH is another.
• A socket has a type, which describes the sort of conversation that’s going to happen. Types have names that begin with SOCK. We want SOCK_STREAM, which means each computer can send arbitrary amounts of data, but there’s also SOCK_DGRAM, in which case they send each other packets of some fixed size.DGRAM stands for “datagram”, which I imagine to be like a postcard.
• A socket has a protocol, which describes the steps by which the two computers will establish a connection. Protocols have names that depend on the address family, but we want IPPROTO_TCP.Newer versions of HTTP use something called QUIC instead of the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), but our browser will stick to HTTP 1.0.

By picking all of these options, we can create a socket like so:While this code uses the Python socket library, your favorite language likely contains a very similar library; the API is basically standardized. In Python, the flags we pass are defaults, so you can actually call socket.socket(); I’m keeping the flags here in case you’re following along in another language.

import socket

class URL:
    def request(self):
        s = socket.socket(
            family=socket.AF_INET,
            type=socket.SOCK_STREAM,
            proto=socket.IPPROTO_TCP,
        )

Once you have a socket, you need to tell it to connect to the other computer. For that, you need the host and a port. The port depends on the protocol you are using; for now it should be 80.

class URL:
    def request(self):
        # ...
        s.connect((self.host, 80))

This talks to example.org to set up the connection and prepare both computers to exchange data.

Note that there are two parentheses in the connect call: connect takes a single argument, and that argument is a pair of a host and a port. This is because different address families have different numbers of arguments.

The Mandalorian 1 Temporada Torrent 2019 Dual Audio Instant

Now that we have a connection, we make a request to the other server. To do so, we send it some data using the send method:

class URL:
    def request(self):
        # ...
        request = "GET {} HTTP/1.0\r\n".format(self.path)
        request += "Host: {}\r\n".format(self.host)
        request += "\r\n"
        s.send(request.encode("utf8"))

The send method just sends the request to the server.send actually returns a number, in this case 47. That tells you how many bytes of data you sent to the other computer; if, say, your network connection failed midway through sending the data, you might want to know how much you sent before the connection failed. There are a few things in this code that have to be exactly right. First, it’s very important to use \r\n instead of \n for newlines. It’s also essential that you put two \r\n newlines at the end, so that you send that blank line at the end of the request. If you forget that, the other computer will keep waiting on you to send that newline, and you’ll keep waiting on its response.Computers are endlessly literal-minded.

Also note the encode call. When you send data, it’s important to remember that you are sending raw bits and bytes; they could form text or an image or video. But a Python string is specifically for representing text. The encode method converts text into bytes, and there’s a corresponding decode method that goes the other way.When you call encode and decode you need to tell the computer what character encoding you want it to use. This is a complicated topic. I’m using utf8 here, which is a common character encoding and will work on many pages, but in the real world you would need to be more careful. Python reminds you to be careful by giving different types to text and to bytes:

>>> type("text")
<class 'str'>
>>> type("text".encode("utf8"))
<class 'bytes'>

If you see an error about str versus bytes, it’s because you forgot to call encode or decode somewhere.

To read the server’s response, you could use the read function on sockets, which gives whatever bits of the response have already arrived. Then you write a loop to collect those bits as they arrive. However, in Python you can use the makefile helper function, which hides the loop:If you’re in another language, you might only have socket.read available. You’ll need to write the loop, checking the socket status, yourself.

class URL:
    def request(self):
        # ...
        response = s.makefile("r", encoding="utf8", newline="\r\n")

Here, makefile returns a file-like object containing every byte we receive from the server. I am instructing Python to turn those bytes into a string using the utf8 encoding, or method of associating bytes to letters.Hard-coding utf8 is not correct, but it’s a shortcut that will work alright on most English-language websites. In fact, the Content-Type header usually contains a charset declaration that specifies the encoding of the body. If it’s absent, browsers still won’t default to utf8; they’ll guess, based on letter frequencies, and you will see ugly � strange áççêñ£ß when they guess wrong. I’m also informing Python of HTTP’s weird line endings.

Let’s now split the response into pieces. The first line is the status line:I could have asserted that 200 is required, since that’s the only code our browser supports, but it’s better to just let the browser render the returned body, because servers will generally output a helpful and user-readable HTML error page even for error codes. This is another way in which the web is easy to implement incrementally.

class URL:
    def request(self):
        # ...
        statusline = response.readline()
        version, status, explanation = statusline.split(" ", 2)

Note that I do not check that the server’s version of HTTP is the same as mine; this might sound like a good idea, but there are a lot of misconfigured servers out there that respond in HTTP 1.1 even when you talk to them in HTTP 1.0.Luckily the protocols are similar enough to not cause confusion.

After the status line come the headers:

class URL:
    def request(self):
        # ...
        response_headers = {}
        while True:
            line = response.readline()
            if line == "\r\n": break
            header, value = line.split(":", 1)
            response_headers[header.casefold()] = value.strip()

For the headers, I split each line at the first colon and fill in a map of header names to header values. Headers are case-insensitive, so I normalize them to lower case.I used casefold instead of lower, because it works better for more languages. Also, whitespace is insignificant in HTTP header values, so I strip off extra whitespace at the beginning and end.

Headers can describe all sorts of information, but a couple of headers are especially important because they tell us that the data we’re trying to access is being sent in an unusual way. Let’s make sure none of those are present.Exercise 1-9 describes how your browser should handle these headers if they are present.

class URL:
    def request(self):
        # ...
        assert "transfer-encoding" not in response_headers
        assert "content-encoding" not in response_headers

The usual way to get the sent data, then, is everything after the headers:

class URL:
    def request(self):
        # ...
        content = response.read()
        s.close()

It’s the body that we’re going to display, so let’s return that:

class URL:
    def request(self):
        # ...
        return content

Now let’s actually display the text in the response body.

The Mandalorian 1 Temporada Torrent 2019 Dual Audio Instant

The HTML code in the response body defines the content you see in your browser window when you go to http://example.org/index.html. I’ll be talking much, much more about HTML in future chapters, but for now let me keep it very simple.

In HTML, there are tags and text. Each tag starts with a < and ends with a >; generally speaking, tags tell you what kind of thing some content is, while text is the actual content.That said, some tags, like img, are content, not information about it. Most tags come in pairs of a start and an end tag; for example, the title of the page is enclosed in a pair of tags: <title> and </title>. Each tag, inside the angle brackets, has a tag name (like title here), and then optionally a space followed by attributes, and its pair has a / followed by the tag name (and no attributes).

So, to create our very, very simple web browser, let’s take the page HTML and print all the text, but not the tags, in it.If this example causes Python to produce a SyntaxError pointing to the end on the last line, it is likely because you are running Python 2 instead of Python 3. Make sure you are using Python 3. I’ll do this in a new function, show:Note that this is a global function and not in the URL class.

def show(body):
    in_tag = False
    for c in body:
        if c == "<":
            in_tag = True
        elif c == ">":
            in_tag = False
        elif not in_tag:
            print(c, end="")

This code is pretty complex. It goes through the request body character by character, and it has two states: in_tag, when it is currently between a pair of angle brackets, and not in_tag. When the current character is an angle bracket, it changes between those states; normal characters, not inside a tag, are printed.The end argument tells Python not to print a newline after the character, which it otherwise would.

We can now load a web page just by stringing together request and show:Like show, this is a global function.

def load(url):
    body = url.request()
    show(body)

Add the following code to run load from the command line:

if __name__ == "__main__":
    import sys
    load(URL(sys.argv[1]))

The first line is Python’s version of a main function, run only when executing this script from the command line. The code reads the first argument (sys.argv[1]) from the command line and uses it as a URL. Try running this code on the URL http://example.org/:

python3 browser.py http://example.org/

You should see some short text welcoming you to the official example web page. You can also try using it on this chapter!

The Mandalorian 1 Temporada Torrent 2019 Dual Audio Instant

So far, our browser supports the http scheme. That’s a pretty common scheme. But more and more websites are migrating to the https scheme, and many websites require it.

The difference between http and https is that https is more secure—but let’s be a little more specific. The https scheme, or more formally HTTP over TLS (Transport Layer Security), is identical to the normal http scheme, except that all communication between the browser and the host is encrypted. There are quite a few details to how this works: which encryption algorithms are used, how a common encryption key is agreed to, and of course how to make sure that the browser is connecting to the correct host. The difference in the protocol layers involved is shown in Figure 5.

Luckily, the Python ssl library implements all of these details for us, so making an encrypted connection is almost as easy as making a regular connection. That ease of use comes with accepting some default settings which could be inappropriate for some situations, but for teaching purposes they are fine.

Making an encrypted connection with ssl is pretty easy. Suppose you’ve already created a socket, s, and connected it to example.org. To encrypt the connection, you use ssl.create_default_context to create a context ctx and use that context to wrap the socket s:

import ssl
ctx = ssl.create_default_context()
s = ctx.wrap_socket(s, server_hostname=host)

Note that wrap_socket returns a new socket, which I save back into the s variable. That’s because you don’t want to send any data over the original socket; it would be unencrypted and also confusing. The server_hostname argument is used to check that you’ve connected to the right server. It should match the Host header.

Let’s try to take this code and add it to request. First, we need to detect which scheme is being used:

import ssl

class URL:
    def __init__(self, url):
        self.scheme, url = url.split("://", 1)
        assert self.scheme in ["http", "https"]
        # ...

(Note that here you’re supposed to replace the existing scheme parsing code with this new code. It’s usually clear from context, and the code itself, what you need to replace.)

Encrypted HTTP connections usually use port 443 instead of port 80:

class URL:
    def __init__(self, url):
        # ...
        if self.scheme == "http":
            self.port = 80
        elif self.scheme == "https":
            self.port = 443

We can use that port when creating the socket:

class URL:
    def request(self):
        # ...
        s.connect((self.host, self.port))
        # ...

Next, we’ll wrap the socket with the ssl library:

class URL:
    def request(self):
        # ...
        s.connect((self.host, self.port))
        if self.scheme == "https":
            ctx = ssl.create_default_context()
            s = ctx.wrap_socket(s, server_hostname=self.host)
        # ...

Your browser should now be able to connect to HTTPS sites.

While we’re at it, let’s add support for custom ports, which are specified in a URL by putting a colon after the host name, as in Figure 6.

http://example.org:8080Port/index.html

If the URL has a port we can parse it out and use it:

class URL:
    def __init__(self, url):
        # ...
        if ":" in self.host:
            self.host, port = self.host.split(":", 1)
            self.port = int(port)

Custom ports are handy for debugging. Python has a built-in web server you can use to serve files on your computer. For example, if you run

python3 -m http.server 8000 -d /some/directory

then going to http://localhost:8000/ should show you all the files in that directory. This is a good way to test your browser.

At this point you should be able to run your program on any web page. Here is what it should output for a simple example:

  
    This is a simple
    web page with some
    text in it.
  

The Mandalorian 1 Temporada Torrent 2019 Dual Audio Instant

This chapter went from an empty file to a rudimentary web browser that can:

• parse a URL into a scheme, host, port, and path;
• connect to that host using the socket and ssl libraries;
• send an HTTP request to that host, including a Host header;
• split the HTTP response into a status line, headers, and a body;
• print the text (and not the tags) in the body.

Yes, this is still more of a command-line tool than a web browser, but it already has some of the core capabilities of a browser.

The Mandalorian 1 Temporada Torrent 2019 Dual Audio Instant

The complete set of functions, classes, and methods in our browser should look something like this:

The Mandalorian 1 Temporada Torrent 2019 Dual Audio Instant

1-1 HTTP/1.1. Along with Host, send the Connection header in the request function with the value close. Your browser can now declare that it is using HTTP/1.1. Also add a User-Agent header. Its value can be whatever you want—it identifies your browser to the host. Make it easy to add further headers in the future.

1-2 File URLs. Add support for the file scheme, which allows the browser to open local files. For example, file:///path/goes/here should refer to the file on your computer at location /path/goes/here. Also make it so that, if your browser is started without a URL being given, some specific file on your computer is opened. You can use that file for quick testing.

1-3 data. Yet another scheme is data, which allows inlining HTML content into the URL itself. Try navigating to data:text/html,Hello world! in a real browser to see what happens. Add support for this scheme to your browser. The data scheme is especially convenient for making tests without having to put them in separate files.

1-4 Entities. Implement support for the less-than (<) and greater-than (>) entities. These should be printed as < and >, respectively. For example, if the HTML response was <div>, the show method of your browser should print <div>. Entities allow web pages to include these special characters without the browser interpreting them as tags.

1-5 view-source. Add support for the view-source scheme; navigating to view-source:http://example.org/ should show the HTML source instead of the rendered page. Add support for this scheme. Your browser should print the entire HTML file as if it was text. You’ll want to have also implemented Exercise 1-4.

1-6 Keep-alive. Implement Exercise 1-1; however, do not send the Connection: close header (send Connection: keep-alive instead). When reading the body from the socket, only read as many bytes as given in the Content-Length header and don’t close the socket afterward. Instead, save the socket, and if another request is made to the same server reuse the same socket instead of creating a new one. (You’ll also need to pass the "rb" option to makefile or the value reported by Content-Length might not match the length of the string you’re reading.) This will speed up repeated requests to the same server, which are common.

1-7 Redirects. Error codes in the 300 range request a redirect. When your browser encounters one, it should make a new request to the URL given in the Location header. Sometimes the Location header is a full URL, but sometimes it skips the host and scheme and just starts with a / (meaning the same host and scheme as the original request). The new URL might itself be a redirect, so make sure to handle that case. You don’t, however, want to get stuck in a redirect loop, so make sure to limit how many redirects your browser can follow in a row. You can test this with the URL http://browser.engineering/redirect, which redirects back to this page, and its /redirect2 and /redirect3 cousins which do more complicated redirect chains.

1-8 Caching. Typically, the same images, styles, and scripts are used on multiple pages; downloading them repeatedly is a waste. It’s generally valid to cache any HTTP response, as long as it was requested with GET and received a 200 response.Some other status codes like 301 and 404 can also be cached. Implement a cache in your browser and test it by requesting the same file multiple times. Servers control caches using the Cache-Control header. Add support for this header, specifically for the no-store and max-age values. If the Cache-Control header contains any value other than these two, it’s best not to cache the response.

1-9 Compression. Add support for HTTP compression, in which the browser informs the server that compressed data is acceptable. Your browser must send the Accept-Encoding header with the value gzip. If the server supports compression, its response will have a Content-Encoding header with value gzip. The body is then compressed. Add support for this case. To decompress the data, you can use the decompress method in the gzip module. GZip data is not utf8-encoded, so pass "rb" to makefile to work with raw bytes instead. Most web servers send compressed data in a Transfer-Encoding called chunked.There are also a couple of Transfer-Encodings that compress the data. They aren’t commonly used. You’ll need to add support for that, too.

Did you find this chapter useful? Send us feedback!